Jack the Ripper strikes again in Whitchapel.
Jack the Ripper strikes again in Whitechapel.
Picture this: an unknown assailant, prowls the dark, smoggy and dingy streets of Whitechapel in a top hat and leather apron. His victims? Vulnerable, desperate, and easily accessible women. Murdered, mutilated and dismembered in the most inhumane, degrading and violent way.
You would be forgiven for thinking that we have gone back in time to Whitechapel 1888, but the scene described above is in fact, the backdrop to the ITV Crime thriller series ‘Whitechapel’ set in 2008 onwards. It depicts violent crime focusing on spree killings and gangland crimes. By drawing upon the rich pool of folklore, history and genuine criminal history research, a copycat killer emerges in every episode. In this series, a copycat Ripper. This blog will be exploring Whitechapel’s media portrayal of crime, as a fascinating collusion between the key facets of policing practises, both past and present, when solving a murder case. The characterisation of the series recurrent characters including a well-educated newbie DI and an old fashioned ‘Copper’ as his sergeant are potent symbols of these contrasts.
Series one of Whitechapel denotes significant media representations of historical and contemporary policing attitudes and practises, as well as depictions of Jack the Ripper’s identity. This blog will explore the portrayal of Jack the Ripper and its references to the past, as a guidepost with which to inform best approaches in the present day. Thinking from a Criminological lens, it is interesting to analyse the methods of investigation techniques deployed by detectives in 1888 and how they have been appropriated to fit an investigation carried out in the present day media. In assessing series one, the depiction of changes over time will be explored as well as the application of criminological and media theories.
The analytical technique deployed for this blog will be an ethnographic content analysis. (ECA). An ECA approach allows more reflexivity and a more balanced result. (Altheide D 1987). This blog has adopted an ECA because it allows more breadth of interpretation and is less restrictive, in comparison to visual ethnography which is argued by Pink (2013) to be image centred only.
Whitechapel’s media representation can be analysed through the visual layout of the incident room. This displayed a modern setting with an additional backdrop of Victorian undertones to recreate what the incident room of 1888 would have looked like. Additionally, notes were recorded regarding individual characterizations of the dominant characters throughout the series, also noting their immersed environment and the extent to which the series portrayed criminological and media theories, such as ideal victimhood and mass society theory.
‘‘How can so much horror be visited on such a small area’’ asks Steve Pemberton’s Ripperologist character- Mr Edward Buchan.
This question certainly offers a chance to reflect upon the depictions of horror through a Victorian lens. The findings have been startling. First, there is a visible portrayal of the similarities and differences between the Victorian methods of policing and investigation, during the Jack the Ripper killing spree in 1888. In the twenty first century, the Metropolitan Police Force was fully established, who are equipped with more sophisticated levels of knowledge, equipment and resources to conduct an investigation and catch a spree killer.
This trilogy portrays a second attempt to solve the unsolvable and catch the killer who was never caught, and despite conspiracy theories remains a mystery to this day. This fictional television thriller portrays the policing investigation techniques used in 1888 and one hundred years later in the year 2008.
It can be interpreted that ‘Whitechapel’ is ultimately portraying that despite the technological advancements, it is still crucial in this context to apply historical expertise to catch a copycat killer. This killer who emulated every single action that Jack the Ripper made in 1888. We see this through the introduction of Ripperologist character, Mr Buchan. As Mr Buchan said in the programme, ‘we cannot know our future if we do not first understand our past’.
The findings revealed that there are a lot of hidden, subliminal messages portrayed throughout the trilogy. Firstly, there is a strong element of ‘ideal victimhood’. It can be argued that Whitechapel portrays a mixture of both urban realism and urban fantasy. Additionally, moral panics and community responses to these panics are also significantly represented throughout.
Christie N (1986) discusses ‘ideal victimhood’ as the characteristics on a physical, emotional and circumstantial level which may increase society’s response of sympathy and understanding. Christie N (1986) determines based on these characteristics, a victim may ultimately be referred to as ‘ideal’. Society would determine if they are worth our sympathy and understanding. In the case of Whitechapel, the portrayals are prominent in the beginning of series one.
The victim’s throughout the Jack the Ripper trilogy match most of the six attributes of ‘ideal victimhood’ coined by Nils Christie. Walklate (2015) categorises the ideal victim as being weaker than the offender, blameless for what happened, and does not know the attacker. These attributes have been applied throughout the victim’s portrayal. The first victim was a sex worker who was killed in the playground of a boarding school and there was evidence of brutal strangulation. The audience may therefore perceive the victim to be weaker than the offender and unable to ‘fight off’ her attacker.
It can be argued that the victim was not to blame for what occurred. (Christie 1986). This is because the medical examiner’s report stated that the victim was domestically abused. Therefore, the victim may be labelled as being ‘vulnerable’, or in the context of the series, ‘a damsel in distress’ who should not be blamed for what happened. The depiction of the killer was a man of mystery. Who prowled the streets, searching for his ‘ideal victim’? (Christie 1986) also referred to as a ‘flaneur’. (Lynes A 2018). This correlates with the idea of ‘ideal victimhood’ that the victim did not know the offender. These portrayals are visible throughout Whitechapel.
Scene one, begins with a depiction of urban realism. Agathocleous T (2011) describes urban realism as being a concept of whereby you seize real life as it is. Urban realism as a criminological theory is frequently portrayed throughout Whitechapel. Despite the Victorian undertones portrayed throughout, it begins with a public disorder scene, young people are seen to be throwing bottles, shoving past police officers with fires blazing and sirens blaring in the background. The trilogy is set in 2008 when realistically you would have seen a rise in antisocial behaviour and conflict between youth groups and the police.
As the episode continues, the audience are taken to the medical examination’s room where the conclusions and discoveries of the murdered body are made. Dr Llewellyn concluded to DI Chandler and DS Miles that the killer had used a hunting knife, this was based on the compression of
soft tissues and the points of entry. This forensic application is very much a modern entity, which additionally depicts urban realism.
However it can be argued that there are undertones of urban fantasy coming into scene as well. McAven E (2012) describes an alternative criminological theory called urban fantasy as being a genre of re-emergence. A genre whereby fictional, historical and make belief portrayals can be expressed. McAven E (2012) also denotes that the location in which the programme is set becomes characterised and the audience begins to associate that location with certain emotions. Urban fantasy therefore is visible throughout Whitechapel. Firstly by the display of gothic, Victorian undertones portrayed throughout. The first example is the unknown stranger prowling the streets at night in hunt for his ‘ideal victim’. This is a Victorian portrayal which allegedly gave ‘Jack’ the character of walking through Industrialised smog, darkened alleyways and wearing a top hat and leather apron. (Curtis P 2001). Another depiction of urban fantasy is that of the detectives using historical books to predict what the killer will do next. This method of investigation and intelligence gathering can be seen as traditional when one compares the availability of equipment in 2008 including a computer database and CCTV, a policing practise which realistically wouldn’t be conducted today, in a modern police investigation. (Newburn T 2011).
Cultural Criminology is associated with seeking to understand society’s fascination with violence and crime (Ferrell 2013). From a post modernity approach, the portrayal of crime committed by an unknown spree killer are emulated throughout Whitechapel. Through the images of cut up victim’s bodies with flesh hanging out. These are known as media effects. (Ferrell 2013).
Perse E (2008) establishes that a micro component of media effects means to challenge audience’s social constructions of reality through its images and clips. In the case of Whitechapel, media effects are frequently displayed to the audience. The Incident room is used as the main hub of the investigation, where most of the action and discoveries are made. This location of action is portrayed in both a historical and current light. In one scene, depicting all the detectives stood around discussing the progression of the investigation, there is a visible presence of twenty first century technology and equipment such as computers, laptops and mobile phones. However, there is also a display of an olden day, Victorian styled incident room with items such as blackboards and a bottle of Whiskey on the table. Items which in a modern, realist sense would not be used and would be prohibited.
It can be argued that the trilogy is attempting to portray that this is a second chance for the capture and identification of Jack the Ripper. These newly established Metropolitan Police Officers with all the necessary equipment and resources, have a second chance to reopen the investigation and to gain a result. The lack of diversity portrayed throughout the trilogy was also prominent. Near to all the detectives are white, heterosexual men. Arguably this can illustrate a realistic portrayal of what the 1888 incident room would have looked like. The lead detectives being White, heterosexual, men.
In episode one, a conflict is shown between DI Chandler and DS Miles when contesting how ‘policemen’ (note the language used amongst the characters) should be. DS Miles’s character is very much an old school styled detective. This is because language is used which would no longer be acceptable such as calling a female colleague ‘Sweetheart’ and ‘love’. His attitude towards models of policing, arguably are much more old school and traditional. Lock the offender up and throw away the key type mentality. However, DS Miles is having to fight a personal battle against the recently joined DI Chandler, who by the badges of rank is superior to DS Miles.
In comparison to the approach used by DS Miles, DI Chandler wants a ‘clean, tidy, paperless and healthy’ incident room. DI Chandler essentially represents the new, modernised style of policing whereby appropriate language must always be used and methods of investigation must be straight and narrow down the line. Furthermore, there must be a criminogenic rationale. In this case, the rationale of a serial killer who alongside the help of Ripperologist Mr Buchan, DI Chandler is keen to work out.
Additionally, one could refer to mass society theory. Jewkes Y (2015) establishes that society has become more fascinated by violence through its glorification and romanticism. Consequently, public anxieties in the form of moral panics have risen as a result. (Cohen 1972). This is portrayed throughout Whitechapel where we see the glorification of violence. Example of the opening scene where blood was being wiped off a knife, but the offender is portrayed as this mysterious, unknown ‘other’ who the characters rally against.
In conclusion, this blog questions how much has changed from the investigation process of 1888 to 2008. This question allows reflection upon the development of policing practises and attitudes surrounding the hunt for a spree killer. Whitechapel also portrays that we need history to understand our present and future, especially when investigating copycat killers. This blog is aimed at anybody from both professional and leisure backgrounds who are fascinated with the development of policing and methods deployed then and now to catch spree killers, from examining the victim’s eyelids for DNA to round the clock surveillance of a suspect.
It is clear that Whitechapel is emulating a Victorian background, through the characters, their clothes and personal portrayals, however it is at the forefront of a modern twenty first century scene with contemporary values and resources at their disposal. Secondly this blog has concluded that Whitechapel represents a second chance, a chance to catch the spree killer who was unidentified and never caught, a chance also to portray the ways in which methods of investigation would have remained the same, and differed from 1888 to 2008.
This blog explored criminological and media theories to back up why the portrayal was the way it was. Exploring ideal victimhood, moral panics and urban realism/urban fantasy as well as media effects and mass society theory. Collectively, all these findings have revealed that there is a strain between the old and new,
a struggle to adapt to this change, lastly the audience can see the lens of a modern police force with a Victorian backdrop.
References:
Agathodeous T (2011) - urban realism and the cosmopolitan imagination in the nineteenth century, visible city, Invisible world, USA, Cambridge University press.
Altheide D (1987) reflections- ethnographic content analysis- Qualitative sociology vol 10 URL Available at: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00988269 date accessed: Friday 26th April 2019.
Christie N (1986) from crime policy to victim policy, London, Palgrave, Macmillan.
Cohen S (2002) - folk devils and moral panics, the creation of the mods and rockers, 3rd edn, Abingdon, Routledge.
Curtis P (2001), Jack the Ripper and the London Press, New Haven and London, Yale University Press.
Episode 1, Whitechapel, ITV Productions, United Kingdom, 13th June 2011, 22:00, ITV3, 60 mins.
Ferrell J, Hayward K, Young J (2013), Cultural Criminology, London, SAGE.
Jewkes Y (2015) media and crime 3rd edn, London, SAGE.
Lynes A, Kelly C, Uppal P (2018), Benjamin’s flaneur and serial murder- an ultra- realist literary case study of Levi Bellfield- SAGE Journals vol 1.URL available at: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1741659018815934 date accessed: Monday 22nd April 2019. McAven E (2012) - the postmodern sacred popular culture spiritually in the science fiction fantasy and urban fantasy genres, USA, McFarland Inc. publishers.
Newburn T (2011) Handbook of Policing 2nd edn. Abingdon, Routledge. Perse E (2008) media effects and society. London, Taylor and Francis. Pink S (2013)- Doing visual ethnography. 3rd edn London, SAGE.
Schwartz H, Jacobs J (1979) - Qualitative sociology- A method to the madness, New York, the free press.
Walklate S, McGarry (2015) - victims, trauma, testimony and justice, London, Routledge.
Wincup E (2017) Criminological research- Understanding Qualitative methods 2nd edn, London, SAGE
Picture this: an unknown assailant, prowls the dark, smoggy and dingy streets of Whitechapel in a top hat and leather apron. His victims? Vulnerable, desperate, and easily accessible women. Murdered, mutilated and dismembered in the most inhumane, degrading and violent way.
You would be forgiven for thinking that we have gone back in time to Whitechapel 1888, but the scene described above is in fact, the backdrop to the ITV Crime thriller series ‘Whitechapel’ set in 2008 onwards. It depicts violent crime focusing on spree killings and gangland crimes. By drawing upon the rich pool of folklore, history and genuine criminal history research, a copycat killer emerges in every episode. In this series, a copycat Ripper. This blog will be exploring Whitechapel’s media portrayal of crime, as a fascinating collusion between the key facets of policing practises, both past and present, when solving a murder case. The characterisation of the series recurrent characters including a well-educated newbie DI and an old fashioned ‘Copper’ as his sergeant are potent symbols of these contrasts.
Series one of Whitechapel denotes significant media representations of historical and contemporary policing attitudes and practises, as well as depictions of Jack the Ripper’s identity. This blog will explore the portrayal of Jack the Ripper and its references to the past, as a guidepost with which to inform best approaches in the present day. Thinking from a Criminological lens, it is interesting to analyse the methods of investigation techniques deployed by detectives in 1888 and how they have been appropriated to fit an investigation carried out in the present day media. In assessing series one, the depiction of changes over time will be explored as well as the application of criminological and media theories.
The analytical technique deployed for this blog will be an ethnographic content analysis. (ECA). An ECA approach allows more reflexivity and a more balanced result. (Altheide D 1987). This blog has adopted an ECA because it allows more breadth of interpretation and is less restrictive, in comparison to visual ethnography which is argued by Pink (2013) to be image centred only.
Whitechapel’s media representation can be analysed through the visual layout of the incident room. This displayed a modern setting with an additional backdrop of Victorian undertones to recreate what the incident room of 1888 would have looked like. Additionally, notes were recorded regarding individual characterizations of the dominant characters throughout the series, also noting their immersed environment and the extent to which the series portrayed criminological and media theories, such as ideal victimhood and mass society theory.
‘‘How can so much horror be visited on such a small area’’ asks Steve Pemberton’s Ripperologist character- Mr Edward Buchan.
This question certainly offers a chance to reflect upon the depictions of horror through a Victorian lens. The findings have been startling. First, there is a visible portrayal of the similarities and differences between the Victorian methods of policing and investigation, during the Jack the Ripper killing spree in 1888. In the twenty first century, the Metropolitan Police Force was fully established, who are equipped with more sophisticated levels of knowledge, equipment and resources to conduct an investigation and catch a spree killer.
This trilogy portrays a second attempt to solve the unsolvable and catch the killer who was never caught, and despite conspiracy theories remains a mystery to this day. This fictional television thriller portrays the policing investigation techniques used in 1888 and one hundred years later in the year 2008.
It can be interpreted that ‘Whitechapel’ is ultimately portraying that despite the technological advancements, it is still crucial in this context to apply historical expertise to catch a copycat killer. This killer who emulated every single action that Jack the Ripper made in 1888. We see this through the introduction of Ripperologist character, Mr Buchan. As Mr Buchan said in the programme, ‘we cannot know our future if we do not first understand our past’.
The findings revealed that there are a lot of hidden, subliminal messages portrayed throughout the trilogy. Firstly, there is a strong element of ‘ideal victimhood’. It can be argued that Whitechapel portrays a mixture of both urban realism and urban fantasy. Additionally, moral panics and community responses to these panics are also significantly represented throughout.
Christie N (1986) discusses ‘ideal victimhood’ as the characteristics on a physical, emotional and circumstantial level which may increase society’s response of sympathy and understanding. Christie N (1986) determines based on these characteristics, a victim may ultimately be referred to as ‘ideal’. Society would determine if they are worth our sympathy and understanding. In the case of Whitechapel, the portrayals are prominent in the beginning of series one.
The victim’s throughout the Jack the Ripper trilogy match most of the six attributes of ‘ideal victimhood’ coined by Nils Christie. Walklate (2015) categorises the ideal victim as being weaker than the offender, blameless for what happened, and does not know the attacker. These attributes have been applied throughout the victim’s portrayal. The first victim was a sex worker who was killed in the playground of a boarding school and there was evidence of brutal strangulation. The audience may therefore perceive the victim to be weaker than the offender and unable to ‘fight off’ her attacker.
It can be argued that the victim was not to blame for what occurred. (Christie 1986). This is because the medical examiner’s report stated that the victim was domestically abused. Therefore, the victim may be labelled as being ‘vulnerable’, or in the context of the series, ‘a damsel in distress’ who should not be blamed for what happened. The depiction of the killer was a man of mystery. Who prowled the streets, searching for his ‘ideal victim’? (Christie 1986) also referred to as a ‘flaneur’. (Lynes A 2018). This correlates with the idea of ‘ideal victimhood’ that the victim did not know the offender. These portrayals are visible throughout Whitechapel.
Scene one, begins with a depiction of urban realism. Agathocleous T (2011) describes urban realism as being a concept of whereby you seize real life as it is. Urban realism as a criminological theory is frequently portrayed throughout Whitechapel. Despite the Victorian undertones portrayed throughout, it begins with a public disorder scene, young people are seen to be throwing bottles, shoving past police officers with fires blazing and sirens blaring in the background. The trilogy is set in 2008 when realistically you would have seen a rise in antisocial behaviour and conflict between youth groups and the police.
As the episode continues, the audience are taken to the medical examination’s room where the conclusions and discoveries of the murdered body are made. Dr Llewellyn concluded to DI Chandler and DS Miles that the killer had used a hunting knife, this was based on the compression of
soft tissues and the points of entry. This forensic application is very much a modern entity, which additionally depicts urban realism.
However it can be argued that there are undertones of urban fantasy coming into scene as well. McAven E (2012) describes an alternative criminological theory called urban fantasy as being a genre of re-emergence. A genre whereby fictional, historical and make belief portrayals can be expressed. McAven E (2012) also denotes that the location in which the programme is set becomes characterised and the audience begins to associate that location with certain emotions. Urban fantasy therefore is visible throughout Whitechapel. Firstly by the display of gothic, Victorian undertones portrayed throughout. The first example is the unknown stranger prowling the streets at night in hunt for his ‘ideal victim’. This is a Victorian portrayal which allegedly gave ‘Jack’ the character of walking through Industrialised smog, darkened alleyways and wearing a top hat and leather apron. (Curtis P 2001). Another depiction of urban fantasy is that of the detectives using historical books to predict what the killer will do next. This method of investigation and intelligence gathering can be seen as traditional when one compares the availability of equipment in 2008 including a computer database and CCTV, a policing practise which realistically wouldn’t be conducted today, in a modern police investigation. (Newburn T 2011).
Cultural Criminology is associated with seeking to understand society’s fascination with violence and crime (Ferrell 2013). From a post modernity approach, the portrayal of crime committed by an unknown spree killer are emulated throughout Whitechapel. Through the images of cut up victim’s bodies with flesh hanging out. These are known as media effects. (Ferrell 2013).
Perse E (2008) establishes that a micro component of media effects means to challenge audience’s social constructions of reality through its images and clips. In the case of Whitechapel, media effects are frequently displayed to the audience. The Incident room is used as the main hub of the investigation, where most of the action and discoveries are made. This location of action is portrayed in both a historical and current light. In one scene, depicting all the detectives stood around discussing the progression of the investigation, there is a visible presence of twenty first century technology and equipment such as computers, laptops and mobile phones. However, there is also a display of an olden day, Victorian styled incident room with items such as blackboards and a bottle of Whiskey on the table. Items which in a modern, realist sense would not be used and would be prohibited.
It can be argued that the trilogy is attempting to portray that this is a second chance for the capture and identification of Jack the Ripper. These newly established Metropolitan Police Officers with all the necessary equipment and resources, have a second chance to reopen the investigation and to gain a result. The lack of diversity portrayed throughout the trilogy was also prominent. Near to all the detectives are white, heterosexual men. Arguably this can illustrate a realistic portrayal of what the 1888 incident room would have looked like. The lead detectives being White, heterosexual, men.
In episode one, a conflict is shown between DI Chandler and DS Miles when contesting how ‘policemen’ (note the language used amongst the characters) should be. DS Miles’s character is very much an old school styled detective. This is because language is used which would no longer be acceptable such as calling a female colleague ‘Sweetheart’ and ‘love’. His attitude towards models of policing, arguably are much more old school and traditional. Lock the offender up and throw away the key type mentality. However, DS Miles is having to fight a personal battle against the recently joined DI Chandler, who by the badges of rank is superior to DS Miles.
In comparison to the approach used by DS Miles, DI Chandler wants a ‘clean, tidy, paperless and healthy’ incident room. DI Chandler essentially represents the new, modernised style of policing whereby appropriate language must always be used and methods of investigation must be straight and narrow down the line. Furthermore, there must be a criminogenic rationale. In this case, the rationale of a serial killer who alongside the help of Ripperologist Mr Buchan, DI Chandler is keen to work out.
Additionally, one could refer to mass society theory. Jewkes Y (2015) establishes that society has become more fascinated by violence through its glorification and romanticism. Consequently, public anxieties in the form of moral panics have risen as a result. (Cohen 1972). This is portrayed throughout Whitechapel where we see the glorification of violence. Example of the opening scene where blood was being wiped off a knife, but the offender is portrayed as this mysterious, unknown ‘other’ who the characters rally against.
In conclusion, this blog questions how much has changed from the investigation process of 1888 to 2008. This question allows reflection upon the development of policing practises and attitudes surrounding the hunt for a spree killer. Whitechapel also portrays that we need history to understand our present and future, especially when investigating copycat killers. This blog is aimed at anybody from both professional and leisure backgrounds who are fascinated with the development of policing and methods deployed then and now to catch spree killers, from examining the victim’s eyelids for DNA to round the clock surveillance of a suspect.
It is clear that Whitechapel is emulating a Victorian background, through the characters, their clothes and personal portrayals, however it is at the forefront of a modern twenty first century scene with contemporary values and resources at their disposal. Secondly this blog has concluded that Whitechapel represents a second chance, a chance to catch the spree killer who was unidentified and never caught, a chance also to portray the ways in which methods of investigation would have remained the same, and differed from 1888 to 2008.
This blog explored criminological and media theories to back up why the portrayal was the way it was. Exploring ideal victimhood, moral panics and urban realism/urban fantasy as well as media effects and mass society theory. Collectively, all these findings have revealed that there is a strain between the old and new,
a struggle to adapt to this change, lastly the audience can see the lens of a modern police force with a Victorian backdrop.
References:
Agathodeous T (2011) - urban realism and the cosmopolitan imagination in the nineteenth century, visible city, Invisible world, USA, Cambridge University press.
Altheide D (1987) reflections- ethnographic content analysis- Qualitative sociology vol 10 URL Available at: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00988269 date accessed: Friday 26th April 2019.
Christie N (1986) from crime policy to victim policy, London, Palgrave, Macmillan.
Cohen S (2002) - folk devils and moral panics, the creation of the mods and rockers, 3rd edn, Abingdon, Routledge.
Curtis P (2001), Jack the Ripper and the London Press, New Haven and London, Yale University Press.
Episode 1, Whitechapel, ITV Productions, United Kingdom, 13th June 2011, 22:00, ITV3, 60 mins.
Ferrell J, Hayward K, Young J (2013), Cultural Criminology, London, SAGE.
Jewkes Y (2015) media and crime 3rd edn, London, SAGE.
Lynes A, Kelly C, Uppal P (2018), Benjamin’s flaneur and serial murder- an ultra- realist literary case study of Levi Bellfield- SAGE Journals vol 1.URL available at: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1741659018815934 date accessed: Monday 22nd April 2019. McAven E (2012) - the postmodern sacred popular culture spiritually in the science fiction fantasy and urban fantasy genres, USA, McFarland Inc. publishers.
Newburn T (2011) Handbook of Policing 2nd edn. Abingdon, Routledge. Perse E (2008) media effects and society. London, Taylor and Francis. Pink S (2013)- Doing visual ethnography. 3rd edn London, SAGE.
Schwartz H, Jacobs J (1979) - Qualitative sociology- A method to the madness, New York, the free press.
Walklate S, McGarry (2015) - victims, trauma, testimony and justice, London, Routledge.
Wincup E (2017) Criminological research- Understanding Qualitative methods 2nd edn, London, SAGE
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